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https://phys.org/news/2025-06-curious-humpback-whales-approach-humans.html

A team of scientists from the SETI Institute and the University of California at Davis has documented, for the first time, humpback whales producing large bubble rings, like a human smoker blowing smoke rings, during friendly interactions with humans. This previously little-studied behavior may represent play or communication.

https://archive.md/2GdVV

"the top four places, again in ascending order, were taken by agnostics, atheists, Jews, and Episcopalians (Anglicans). So, atheists are smarter than agnostics, Jews are smarter than atheists, and Anglicans the smartest of the lot ..."

A Plausible Cause of Dinosaur Extinction

Multiple ancient viruses likely drove the extinction of all dinosaurs (avian and non-avian), pterosaurs, and marine reptiles ~66 million years ago, leaving elephants and whales as Earth’s largest survivors.

These viruses exploited a suite of vulnerabilities, shared archosaur biology, immunological deficiencies, gigantism, ecological behaviors, and interactions with immune proto-mammal carriers, while proto-mammals survived due to distinct traits.

Modern parallels, including elephants’ cancer resistance, food toxicities, and pets as ignored disease vectors, support the plausibility of this viral catastrophe.

Shared Archosaur Biology as Viral Targets

Dinosaurs (e.g., Velociraptor, Archaeopteryx), pterosaurs (Pteranodon), and marine reptiles (Mosasaurus) shared archosaur traits, uricotelic metabolism, sauropsid red blood cells, and calcified eggshells. Viruses could have targeted these, akin to avian influenza disrupting chicken respiratory systems but sparing mammals.

One virus might have caused eggshell thinning, another blood toxicity via uric acid overload, affecting all archosaurs. Proto-mammals, with hemoglobin-based blood and viviparity, were immune, like pigs resisting equine viruses, explaining why only mammalian giants (elephants, whales) remain.

Immunological Weakness and Cancer Parallel

Elephants resist cancer due to ~20 TP53 gene copies, enhancing DNA repair, while humans, with one copy, are vulnerable. Dinosaurs may have lacked robust antiviral defenses, such as interferon-alpha pathways, making them susceptible to viruses causing inflammation or cell death, similar to herpesviruses in immunocompromised reptiles.

Proto-mammals, with diverse immune receptors, resisted, like rodents dodging hantaviruses. This immunological gap contributed to dinosaurs’ demise, while mammals evolved into elephants and whales.

Gigantism’s Physiological Vulnerability

Dinosaurs’ massive sizes, Apatosaurus (30 tons) and Quetzalcoatlus (250 kg), imposed high metabolic demands and slow immune responses. Large animals face heightened disease risks; osteosarcoma is common in large dogs but rare in small ones.

Viruses could have targeted oversized organs (e.g., hearts), causing failure, as speculated in sauropod respiratory infections. Small proto-mammals (~100 g), with efficient metabolisms, were unaffected, like mice resisting elephant-specific herpesviruses, allowing their descendants to become elephants and whales.

Species-Specific Toxicities and Food Analogy

Food toxicities reveal selective vulnerabilities. Onions are safe for humans but cause anemia in cats due to N-propyl disulfide. Raw cassava is toxic to humans (cyanide) but detoxified by some ungulates’ enzymes.

Dinosaurs could have faced viruses inducing a “toxic” metabolic effect, such as phosphate depletion weakening bones, fatal to their physiology. Proto-mammals, with distinct enzymes, neutralized these viruses, like ungulates eating cassava, ensuring their survival and evolution into large mammals.

Ignorant Disease Vectors: Cats and Dogs Parallel

Cats and dogs spread zoonoses, yet humans ignorantly embrace pets. Cats transmit toxoplasmosis, asymptomatic in felines but harmful to humans; dogs spread rabies, often pre-symptomatically.

Studies show 43.75% of NYC pet cats were SARS-CoV-2 positive in 2020, highlighting silent transmission. Proto-mammals (e.g., multituberculates) could have been immune carriers, spreading viruses via contact or scavenging, unnoticed by dinosaurs.

This mirrors human pet complacency, amplifying viral spread to archosaurs.

Ecological and Behavioral Amplifiers

Dinosaurs’ behaviors, migratory hadrosaur herds, pterosaur nesting colonies, mosasaur foraging groups, facilitated viral transmission, like rinderpest in antelope. Marine reptiles in dense oceans faced risks akin to morbillivirus in seals.

Amphibious creatures, such as early crocodilians or semi-aquatic dinosaurs like Spinosaurus, likely acted as vectors, spreading viruses between terrestrial and marine environments. These species, moving between land and water, could have transmitted pathogens via shared water sources or predation, similar to how amphibians spread chytrid fungus across aquatic and terrestrial habitats.

Proto-mammals, nocturnal or solitary, had low contact rates, like badgers avoiding tuberculosis. Fossil evidence of dinosaur bone lesions suggests disease susceptibility, supporting viral spread.

White-Nose Syndrome as a Disease Model

White-nose syndrome (Pseudogymnoascus destructans) kills bats by disrupting hibernation via skin infections, but rodents in the same caves are immune due to different skin proteins.

Viruses could have targeted dinosaur scales or mucosal linings, causing sepsis, while proto-mammals’ furry skin resisted. This model underscores dinosaurs’ unique susceptibility, contributing to their extinction.

Additional Biological Vulnerabilities

Neurology: Dinosaur brains, with unique glial cell ratios, may have been prone to viral encephalitis, like West Nile in birds, while mammalian neurons resisted.

Reproduction: Long egg incubation (3–6 months) made dinosaur clutches vulnerable, like ranaviruses in turtle eggs, unlike mammalian live birth.

Thermoregulation: Mesothermic dinosaurs hosted viruses thriving in variable temperatures, unlike endothermic mammals’ stable immunity.

Survival of Elephants and Whales

Proto-mammals (e.g., Pakicetus, Moeritherium) had endothermy, adaptive immunity, and viviparity, blocking archosaur-specific viruses, like deer resisting goat pox. A retrovirus in early mammal genomes may have enhanced their antiviral defenses. Post-extinction, they filled niches, evolving into elephants (7 tons) and blue whales (200 tons).

Extinction of Viruses

With archosaurs gone, host-specific viruses vanished as their hosts died out, similar to smallpox eradication after human vaccination eliminated susceptible hosts.

However, these ancient viruses, or related pathogens responsible for the extinction, could still be hibernating in permafrost at the South or North Poles, preserved in frozen archosaur remains or environmental reservoirs.

The 2016 anthrax outbreak in Siberia, where thawing permafrost released Bacillus anthracis spores from a 75-year-old reindeer carcass, sickened 72 people and killed one child, demonstrates that pathogens can remain viable in permafrost.

Studies of permafrost also reveal viable ancient microbes, like 30,000-year-old viruses revived from Siberian ice, suggesting that such pathogens could persist in polar regions, posing a latent risk if thawed.

Plausibility

This hypothesis is plausible because viruses exploited equally critical vulnerabilities, archosaur biology, weak immunity, gigantism, behaviors, amphibious vectors, and unnoticed carriers, while proto-mammals’ traits ensured survival.

Modern parallels (cancer, food toxicities, pet zoonoses, white-nose syndrome) and fossil evidence of dinosaur diseases support a viral cause. The Siberian anthrax outbreak and revived ancient viruses highlight the ongoing risk of permafrost-bound pathogens.

References

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